Characteristics+Group+Grid

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**Be sure to provide citation information and references!**
Learning Disabilities ||
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 * Federal Definition of the Disability – Major Components, Including Incidence and etiology || “//Specific learning disability// means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include children who have learning disabilities which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, or mental retardation, or emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage” (Garguilo, 2010, p. 61).

According to LD Online, “fifteen percent of the U.S. population, or one in seven Americans, has some type of learning disability. Difficulty with basic reading and language skills are the most common learning disabilities. As many as 80 percent of students with learning disabilities have reading problems” (LD Online, 2008).

“Investigators suggest four basic categories for explaining the etiology of learning disabilities: · acquired trauma (central nervous system dysfunction) · genetic/hereditary influences (some types of learning disabilities tend to “run in families”) · biochemical abnormalities (current clinical evidence does not support dietary restrictions or vitamin deficiencies as contributing to learning disabilities) · environmental possibilities (maternal alcohol/illicit drug use, teratogens)” (Gargiulo, 2010, p. 63) || Health Issues || Children who have learning disabilities have some common characteristics. They include but are not limited to: holding negative attributions, being nonstrategic, being unable to generalize or transfer learning, processing information inefficiently or incorrectly, and possessing poor social skills. There aren’t many physical health issues related to leaning disabilities. However, some children do face mental heath issues such as psychiatric, behavioral, and emotional problems.
 * Typical Physical Characteristics of the Disability

Smith, D. (Ed.). (2007). //Introduction to special education: making a difference//. Nashville: Pearson Education Inc. || [] Children with learning disabilities usually have a normal range of intelligence. They try very hard to follow instructions, concentrate, and "be good" at home and in school. Yet, despite this effort, he or she is not mastering school tasks and falls behind. Learning disabilities affect at least 1 in 10 schoolchildren. Some children with learning disabilities are also hyperactive; unable to sit still, easily distracted, and have a short attention span. Child and adolescent psychiatrists point out that learning disabilities are treatable. If not detected and treated early, however, they can have a tragic "snowballing" effect. For instance, a child who does not learn addition in elementary school cannot understand algebra in high school. The child, trying very hard to learn, becomes more and more frustrated, and develops emotional problems such as low self-esteem in the face of repeated failure. Some learning disabled children misbehave in school because they would rather be seen as "bad" than "stupid." [] ||
 * Typical Learning Characteristics and/or Effects Of The Disability On Development And Learning || A person with a learning disability may experience a cycle of academic failure and lowered self-esteem. The disability usually only affects certain limited areas of a child's development. In fact, rarely are learning disabilities severe enough to impair a person's potential to live a happy normal life.
 * Common Communication and/or Behavior Issues & Needs || A child with a learning disability cannot try harder, pay closer attention, or improve motivation on their own; they need help to learn how to do those things, but they commonly have trouble communicating this need to others. Students with learning disabilities have trouble processing sensory information because they see, hear, and understand things differently. Sometimes kids have trouble expressing their feelings, calming themselves down, and reading nonverbal cues, which can lead to difficulty in the classroom and with their peers. Children with a learning disability may have difficulty with verbal language skills, such as the ability to retell a story and the fluency of speech, as well as the ability to understand the meaning of words, parts of speech, directions, etc.

www.helpguide.org/mental/learning_disabilities || LD Online. (2008). LD basics: What is a learning disability? Retrieved January 30, 2010, from []. || Emotional /Behavioral ||
 * References || Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. J. (2010). //Teaching in today’s Inclusive Classrooms: A universal design for learning approach.// Belmont: Wadsworth.
 * Federal Definition of the Disability – Major Components, Including Incidence and etiology || The federal definition of emotional behavioral disorders is a disability characterized by behavioral and emotional responses that adversely affect emotional performance in school. This includes children with schizophrenic disorders, affective disorders, anxiety disorders, and many more. About 1 percent of all school age children are identified as having an emotional behavioral disorder. Some of the main causes of emotional behavioral disorders fall into one of the three categories of biology, home and community, and/or school.

Smith, D. (Ed.). (2007). //Introduction to special education: making a difference//. Nashville: Pearson Education In || Health Issues || In order for a student to be identified as EBD there are 4 key concepts to be addressed: (1) the student exhibits social, emotional or behavioral functioning that so departs from generally accepted, age appropriate ethnic or cultural norms that it adversely affects a child's academic progress, social relationships, personal adjustment, classroom adjustment, self-care or vocational skills; (2) the behaviors are severe, chronic, and frequent, occur at school and at least 1 other setting, and the student exhibits at least 1 of 8 characteristics or patterns of behavior indicative of EBD; (3) the IEP team used a variety of sources of information including observations and has reviewed prior, documented interventions; and, (4) the IEP team did not identify or refuse to identify a student as EBD solely on the basis of another disability, social maladjustment, adjudicated delinquency, dropout, chemically dependency, cultural deprivation, familial instability, suspected child abuse, socio-economic circumstances, or medical or psychiatric diagnostic statements. [] The term serious emotional disturbance means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance: a) An inability to learn, which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; b) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers; c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or e) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal school problems [] ||
 * Typical Physical Characteristics of the Disability
 * Typical Learning Characteristics and/or Effects Of The Disability On Development And Learning || Typical learning characteristics of students with a emotional or behavioral disability may include an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. In addition, hyperactivity may prevent the student from learning and cause the student to perform below grade level. The student may also isolate themselves preventing them to interact with other students in a classroom setting. Behavior modification is one of the most widely used approaches to helping children with a serious emotional or behavioral disability. However, there are many other techniques that are also successful -- such as counseling, anger management, and learning contracts that may be used in combination with behavior modification.

Jordan, D. (1991). A guidebook for parents of children with emotional or behavior disorders. Minneapolis, MN || 1. Inform pupils of what is expected of them 2. Establish a positive learning climate 3. Provide a meaningful learning experience 4. Avoid threats 5. Demonstrate fairness 6. Build and exhibit self-confidence 7. Recognize positive student attributes 8. Time the recognition of student attributes 9. Use positive modeling 10. Structure the curriculum & classroom environment || Sped 500-community blog, Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, Monday, April 21, 2008, from [] || Deaf/Hard of Hearing || [] || Health Issues || Typical physical characteristics of people with the disability deaf/hard of hearing may include wearing hearing aids, may move around the classroom to get closer to sound source and they may appear physically uncoordinated in some activities. Students may choose younger and/or handicapped students as peer group. They also may use physical contact for getting attention. The most common health issue related to this disability is recurring ear infections.
 * Common Communication and/or Behavior Issues & Needs || "Students with emotional or behavioral disorders represent an extremely heterogeneous group of learners. These individuals often exhibit a wide range of behaviors encompassing not only acting out and agressive behaviors, but also such debilitatingdisorders as schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, and conduct disorders." (Gargiulo, 2010, p.67, and 69). Many students diagnosed with such disability may have trouble communicating due to their lack of grammar skills. This may involve word finding, limited vocabulary,and difficulty with compound and complex sentences. They may even be afraid to talk. Some may jump from topic to topic, repeat words or sentences, and hesitate often during a conversation. Many behaviors include; aggression and/or self-injurious behavior (i.e., fighting, bullying, violating rules, overative, impulsive, stealing, truancy, and other socially maladjusted behaviors). Some individuals may exhibit anxiety disorders, crying, worring, and fear. Students diagnosed with this disability should be given a strict routine to following with a firm set of rules to abide by. Teachers and mentors must learn how to stop inappropriate behaviors and increase appropriate behaviors through a reward system or by praise.
 * Ten components to a preventive discipline program (Sabatino, 1987) **
 * References || Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. J. (2010). //Teaching in today’s Inclusive Classrooms: A universal design for learning approach.// Belmont: Wadsworth.
 * Federal Definition of the Disability – Major Components, Including Incidence and etiology || The word "deaf" by federal definition means a hearing loss which adversely affects educational performance and which is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic (communication) information through hearing, with or without amplification (hearing aids). The term "hard of hearing" means a hearing loss, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but which allows the child access to some degree of communication with or without amplification (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 1990). The term "Deaf" used with a capital D refers to those individuals with hearing losses who identify themselves with the Deaf Culture.
 * Typical Physical Characteristics of the Disability

Andrew Freeland. (1989). Deafness: The Facts Oxford: Oxford University Press || For students who are deaf/hard of hearing, speech and language is their biggest difficulty (Garguilo, 2010, p. 93).
 * Typical Learning Characteristics and/or Effects Of The Disability On Development And Learning || Students diagnosed with LD or Hearing Loss are generally found to be in the average or above average range of intelligence, displaying skills and abilities in many different ways while displaying specific learning deficits that may restrict accomplishments. They are described as exhibiting usual learning characteristics concidered atypical of students who are deaf and hard of hearing in general; these greatky affect their progress. Delayed language and concept learning are found in the general population of students who are deaf. (Bunch & Melnyk,1989). ||
 * Common Communication and/or Behavior Issues & Needs ||

Students with mild/moderate hearing loss (26-40 dB loss) still use speech as their main mode of communication/language. Students with profound deafness (90+ dB loss) have problems with “articulation, voice quality, and tone discrimination.” Sometimes, even top quality hearing aids can’t help these students hear; they usually learn to speech read/lip read (Garguilo, 2010, p. 93). Learning sign language is another option.  The students’ self esteem, socialization with peers, and communication in general is hindered. They also tend to have a limited vocabulary (Garguilo, 2010, p. 90).  Before diagnosis, many teachers of students that are deaf/hard of hearing think that these students have the following behavioral problems: · don’t pay attention (can’t answer questions when asked, don’t listen to directions, asks to repeat things, “only hear what they want to hear”) · are lethargic · daydream · fidget (with ears) · don’t make eye contact when talking to them (head is turned to the side) · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">copies what other students do (good or bad) · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">plays volume too loud (on computers, or audio tapes for books, etc.). In reality, these are just the resulting side effects of their hearing impairment <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">(Garguilo, 2010, p. 92). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Students that are deaf/hard of hearing have the following needs for accommodation: · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">amplification devices (hearing aid or personal FM system) · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">low noise levels in the classroom · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">being within close distance (3-5 feet) of whoever is talking (certain seating as well as lighting) · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">be in the line of vision to whoever is talking in order to lip read · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">special education/speech therapy (of various levels, depending on the degree of hearing loss) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">(Garguilo, 2010, p. 90-91). || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. J. (2010). //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Teaching in today’s Inclusive Classrooms: A universal design for learning approach. // Belmont: Wadsworth || Blind/Vision ||
 * References || Educating Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing: Additional Learning Problems, Eric Digest #E548, from [|http://www.ericdigest.org/1992-2/visual.html]
 * Federal Definition of the Disability – Major Components, Including Incidence and etiology || The federal definition for blind/vision is having limited, impaired, or absent vision and may result in one or more of the following: reduced performance in visual acuity tasks; difficulty with written communication; and/or difficulty with understanding information presented visually in the education environment. This includes students who are blind and students with limited vision.

www.doe.mas.edu/sped || Health Issues || Typical physical characteristics of the visually impaired may include; eye rubbing, head weaving, hand flapping, and/or body rocking. Some individuals may not exhibit physical characteristics. The more severe blind may be seen walking with the help of a cane or a seeing eye dog. Some individuals prefer to wear dark sunglasses due to the appearance of their eyes, which may be misshapened, discolored or slightly off centered. || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Children with visual impairments mostly learn through their hearing. Tactile learning is very important. They tend to struggle the most with: · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">communication · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">understanding the “bigger”/“main”/“whole” picture · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">being unknowing of what’s next in the lesson · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">giving quick responses/answers to questions (they need extra time to “piece together” what others can visually see <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">(Davis, & Cook)  <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Students with visual impairments are grouped into 3 different categories (blind, functionally blind, or low vision). Students who are blind and functionally blind use mostly tactile and auditory means of learning; and for literacy purposes, they use Braille or other tactile media. Low vision students learn via their vision in addition to aid devices (Garguilo, 2010, p. 94-95).
 * Typical Physical Characteristics of the Disability
 * Typical Learning Characteristics and/or Effects Of The Disability On Development And Learning ||

The characteristics of students with visual impairments fluctuate with their amount of vision loss and their age of onset. Conceptual development relies on tactile learning experiences, as opposed to visual ones. Also, their social/emotional development is usually hampered; simple everyday conversations and their self-esteem levels are affected. When people who are visually impaired have a face-to-face conversation, they usually don’t follow the social norms of standing at an appropriate distance and facing the person talking, looking them in the eyes. To those who aren’t visually impaired, these practices seem awkward. Their self-esteem is usually low because they don’t feel included or accepted (they don’t attend school sport events, etc.). Lastly, their orientation (knowing where you are, where you’re going, and the way to go) and mobility development (moving “safely and efficiently form place to place”) is usually supported by the use of a long cane, human guide, or guide dog (Garguilo, 2010, p. 96-97). ||
 * Common Communication and/or Behavior Issues & Needs || <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">“Children with visual impairments should be assessed early to benefit from early intervention programs, when applicable. Technology in the form of computers and low-vision optical and video aids enable many partially sighted, low vision and blind children to participate in regular class activities. Large print materials, books on tape, and Braille books are available.

Students with visual impairments may need additional help with special equipment and modifications in the regular curriculum to emphasize listening skills, communication, orientation and mobility, vocation/career options, and daily living skills. Students with low vision or those who are legally blind may need help in using their residual vision more efficiently and in working with special aids and materials. Students who have visual impairments combined with other types of disabilities have a greater need for an interdisciplinary approach and may require greater emphasis on self care and daily living skills” (National, n.d.). || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (n.d.). Blindness/Visual impairment. Retrieved January 30, 2010, from []. Source: Eric Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children, Reston, VA (1992-08-00),From [] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. J. (2010). //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Teaching in today’s Inclusive Classrooms: A universal design for learning approach. // Belmont: Wadsworth <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Davis, J, & Cook, K. (n.d.). //Considerations for students who are deaf blind//. Retrieved from <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">[] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> || Mental Retardation (mild/moderate) || Health Issues || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Some, not all, students with mental retardation have distinct physical characteristics. Some possibilities could be “short stature” or “unique facial” features; or, there could be no physical characteristics exhibited at all (Reynolds, & Dombeck, 2006)! <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Besides some of the possible physical characteristics of MR (like a large/small head, hands/feet deformities, etc.), some of the other possible neurological or health issues, such as: · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Seizures · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Lethargy · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Vomiting · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Abnormal urine odor · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Problems “feeding and growing normal” <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Again, such characteristics may or may not be present; each case of MR is unique and the physical characteristics and health issues change based on this (Sulkes, 2006). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Usually, if there are any physical characteristics that distinguish them from others, it is correlated with the cause/conditions of their mental retardation, such as Down Syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, etc. (Garguilo, 2010, p. 59). ||
 * References || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">
 * Federal Definition of the Disability – Major Components, Including Incidence and etiology || The Definition used often by the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR). According to The AAMR, mental retardation is a disability that occurs before the age of 18 years. It is characterized by significant limitations in the intellictual functioning and adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. Mental retardation is diagnosed through the use of standardized tests of intelligence and adaptive behavior.There are several hundred disorders associated with mental retardation. Many of these disorders play a casual role in mental retardation. Most of the casual relationships must be inferred (McLaren & Bryson, 1987). The AARR subdivides the disorders that may be associated with MR into three general areas: prenatal causes, perinatal causes, and postnatal causes. The three main components of MR are: Cognition, Adaptive Behavior and Needing supports to sustain independence.(Allyn and Bacon, 2004). ||
 * Typical Physical Characteristics of the Disability
 * Typical Learning Characteristics and/or Effects Of The Disability On Development And Learning || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">During the Fall semester of 2007, Dr. Griffin provided a handout concerning mental retardation. It listed the following information as learning problems: limited attention to relevant details, tends to be less focused or reliable, problems with grouping or clustering (processing is inefficient), poor rehearsal strategies to transfer information from long to short term memory, poor transfer of learning in one setting to other appropriate settings, has an expectance to fail and incompetence in learning, has lower levels of self-sufficiency, and often rejected in school //(H. C. Griffin, Ph.D., class notes handout, Fall 2007)//. ||
 * Common Communication and/or Behavior Issues & Needs || Children with mental retardation show many signs of communication and behavior deficits. They tend to develop language at a slower rate than nonretarded students. Most children who are classified as MR also express speech disorders that inhibit them from communicating effectively. With this disorder also comes with a limited vocabulary and an impaired ability to form complex sentences. These students also express diminished social competence and rejection by peers as well as low self-esteem. The children with more mild to severe cases tend to show fewer communication skills and are more dependant on other’s help to sustain a normal life. Children with moderate cases of MR can live a life in society just as nonretarded individuals. With the help of additional assistance and training they can function in society, attend public schools, attain a job, and perform some activities of daily living independently. However, being that most individuals with MR have a lower self-esteem and inability to make and maintain friendships effectively, it makes communicating more difficult for them in society.

Gargiulo, R, & Metcalf, D. (Ed.). (2010). //Teaching in today's inclusive classrooms: a universal design for learning approach//. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. || [|http://www.thearc.org] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. J. (2010). //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Teaching in today’s Inclusive Classrooms: A universal design for learning approach. // Belmont: Wadsworth. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Sulkes, S. B. (2006, October). //Mental retardation/intellectual disability//. Retrieved from <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">[] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Reynolds, T, & Dombeck, M. (2006, August 24). //Mental retardation associated traits//. Retrieved from <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">[] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> || TBI || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">The Federal Definition of Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is: · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">A brain injury from an “external physical force” that causes a “total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment” o <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">TBI applies to “open or closed head injuries” that causes problems in at least one of the following areas: cognition, language, memory, attention, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment, problem-solving, sensory/perceptual/motor abilities, psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information processing, or speech o <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">TBI doesn’t apply to brain injuries that: are congenital/degenerative or caused from birth trauma <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">(Garguilo, 2010, p. 102) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Some of the possible causes of TBI are: “car accidents, accidental falls, or gunshot wounds to the head. Most commonly, TBI occurs do to car accidents and falls (Garguilo, 2010, p. 105). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Incidence of TBI is very hard to pinpoint, due to the lack of proper reporting of it. Many people with mild TBI don’t even go to the hospital, some who do go to the hospital are discharged without the TBI being properly documented, and severe TBI (such as people who die at the scene of an accident or in transit to the hospital) isn’t ever recorded. A CT scan is now “the diagnostic imaging of choice in TBI cases.” The National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Panel on Rehabilitation of Persons with TBI says that 2.5 - 3.5 million American’s live with TBI-related disabilities. Below is the incidence of the various levels of TBI: · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Mild: 131/100,000 people · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Moderate: 15/100,000 people · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Severe: 14/100,000 people · <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Prehospital deaths caused by TBI: 7/100,000 people <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Men are about twice as likely to have a TBI as women. Those who have the highest risk for TBI are between the ages of 15 and 24. The pediatric age group accounts for 20% of TBIs (Dawodu, 2009). || Health Issues || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Students with TBI may experience one or more of the following physical characteristics: “headaches, fatigue, muscle contractions, imbalance, and paralysis. They must adjust to changes in ability, performance, and behavior. Many youngsters with TBI tend to have uneven abilities; these students also often experience reduced stamina, seizures, headaches, hearing losses, and vision problems” (Smith, 2007, p. 471). ||
 * References || S. Netherton, D. Holmes, & C. E. Walker, (Eds.), __Comprehensive Textbook of Child and Adolescent Disorders__. New York: Oxford University Press, in press.
 * Federal Definition of the Disability – Major Components, Including Incidence and etiology ||
 * Typical Physical Characteristics of the Disability
 * Typical Learning Characteristics and/or Effects Of The Disability On Development And Learning || Children with traumatic brain injury tend to have many issues in the classroom when it comes to learning. They show signs of short and long term memory problems, attention disorders, as well as organizational difficulties. These children also have very uneven academic abilities. They also show impaired oral and written language, problems problem solving and reasoning, and pervasion.

Gargiulo, R, & Metcalf, D. (Ed.). (2010). //Teaching in today's inclusive classrooms: a universal design for learning approach//. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. || [] People with a brain injury often have cognitive (thinking) and communication problems that significantly impair their ability to live independently. These problems vary depending on how widespread brain damage is and the location of the injury. Brain injury survivors may have trouble finding the words they need to express an idea or explain themselves through speaking and/or writing. It may be an effort for them to understand both written and spoken messages, as if they were trying to comprehend a foreign language. They may have difficulty with spelling, writing, and reading, as well. The person may have trouble with social communication, including: § taking turns in conversation § maintaining a topic of conversation § using an appropriate tone of voice § interpreting the subtleties of conversation (e.g., the difference between sarcasm and a serious statement) § responding to facial expressions and body language § keeping up with others in a fast-paced conversation []
 * Common Communication and/or Behavior Issues & Needs || After traumatic brain injury (TBI), many individuals have support needs, but the variety, frequency and intensity of such needs vary widely. Immediate support needs often involve counseling to help adjust to the reality of the injury and its subsequent effects on the family system. Long-term care services focus on supporting families for the move of the injured person back into the home from either a hospital or a rehabilitation facility.

Typical behavior problems of individuals with TBI include not being able to control their temper, not being aware of proper social behavior, not obeying directions, as well as restlessness and agitation. All of these problems have one thing in common; they are all are caused by the neurological disruption that occurs with a head injury. It is important to understand that when individuals with TBI have behavioral problems, they are not purposely misbehaving. Knowing this can help you understand the behavior of persons with TBI. It can also help lessen your concern and anxiety when interacting with them. In working with persons with TBI, keep all of your options open as to how you respond to problem behaviors [] || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Dawodu, S. T. (2009, March 30). //Traumatic brain injury (tbi) - definition, epidemiology, pathophysiology//. Retrieved from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/326510-overview <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;"> Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. J. (2010). //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Teaching in today’s Inclusive Classrooms: A universal design for learning approach. // Belmont: Wadsworth. || Autism || Health Issues || Children with Autism tend to have many specific physical characteristics. Some children have very limited to no attentions to social stimulation. They also have a tendency to little eye contact. Some children with Autism tend to show aggression, destruction, and tantrums at times. You can also notice unusual gestures and vocal patterns along with purposeless movement. With the tantrums comes compulsive behavior as well. It has also been proven that children with Autism show instances of self-injury. As well as physical characteristics, there are many health concerns with type of disorder. These children tend to have atypical eating patterns, lack of social development due to not understanding communication, language impairments, limited focus, under/over responsiveness, and even insomnia.
 * References || Smith, D. D. (2007). //Introduction to special education: Making a difference// (6th ed.). Boston: Ally and Bacon.
 * Federal Definition of the Disability – Major Components, Including Incidence and etiology || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">“//Autism// means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term does not apply if a child’s educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance…” (Gargiulo, 2010, p. 98). ||
 * Typical Physical Characteristics of the Disability

Gaynor, B. (2009, May 4). //Physical characteristics of children with autism//. Retrieved from [] || Individuals with ASD have difficulty understanding others, so things that we make take for granted such as sarcasm, jokes and metaphors may be indecipherable to someone with autism. One way to overcome this obstacle is to try and adapt your communication - speak simply and directly, and say exactly what you mean. Also, whenever possible, include visual cues to your meaning. [] ||
 * Typical Learning Characteristics and/or Effects Of The Disability On Development And Learning || Although autism affects children and adults in many different ways, the effects can be grouped into the "triad of impairment." Regardless of specific symptoms, every individual with this condition has difficulties with three factors - social communication, social interaction and imagination. Perhaps the most apparent manifestation of autism is the way in which it affects the person's ability to communicate with others.
 * Common Communication and/or Behavior Issues & Needs || Speech development in people with autism and the effects on communication are extremely varied. Common problems are lack of eye contact, //poor attention, being able to point objects to others, and difficulty with the 'give and take' in normal conversation. In severe cases, some children remain mute throughout their lives but with varying degrees of literacy. They may communicate in other ways – images, visual clues, sign language, and typing may be far more natural to them. Those who do speak sometimes use language in unusual ways, retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives. Some speak using only single words, while others repeat a mimicked phrase over and over. Singing songs in repetitions can be calming. Many people with autism have a strong tonal sense, and can often understand at least some spoken language, whilst others can understand language fluently.

Siegal, Bryna. (1997). The World of the Autistic Child: Understanding and Treating Autistic Spectrum Disorders. Oxford University Press// ||
 * References || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. J. (2010). Teaching in today’s Inclusive Classrooms: A universal design for learning approach.// Belmont: Wadsworth. ||